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Scientists now have a fairly good understanding of how the plates moveand how such movements relate to earthquake activity. Most movement occursalong narrow zones between plates where the results of plate-tectonic forcesare most evident.


Divergent boundaries occur along spreading centers where plates are movingapart and new crust is created by magma pushing up from the mantle. Picturetwo giant conveyor belts, facing each other but slowly moving in oppositedirections as they transport newly formed oceanic crust away from the ridgecrest.


Perhaps the best known of the divergent boundaries is the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.This submerged mountain range, which extends from the Arctic Ocean to beyondthe southern tip of Africa, is but one segment of the global mid-ocean ridgesystem that encircles the Earth. The rate of spreading along the Mid-AtlanticRidge averages about 2.5 centimeters per year (cm/yr), or 25 km in a millionyears. This rate may seem slow by human standards, but because this processhas been going on for millions of years, it has resulted in plate movementof thousands of kilometers. Seafloor spreading over the past 100 to 200million years has caused the Atlantic Ocean to grow from a tiny inlet ofwater between the continents of Europe, Africa, and the Americas into thevast ocean that exists today.


The consequences of plate movement are easy to see around Krafla Volcano,in the northeastern part of Iceland. Here, existing ground cracks have widenedand new ones appear every few months. From 1975 to 1984, numerous episodesof rifting (surface cracking) took place along the Krafla fissurezone. Some of these rifting events were accompanied by volcanic activity;the ground would gradually rise 1-2 m before abruptly dropping, signallingan impending eruption. Between 1975 and 1984, the displacements caused byrifting totalled about 7 m.


In East Africa, spreading processes have already torn Saudi Arabia awayfrom the rest of the African continent, forming the Red Sea. The activelysplitting African Plate and the Arabian Plate meet in what geologists calla triple junction, where the Red Sea meets the Gulf of Aden. A newspreading center may be developing under Africa along the East African RiftZone. When the continental crust stretches beyond its limits, tension cracksbegin to appear on the Earth's surface. Magma rises and squeezes throughthe widening cracks, sometimes to erupt and form volcanoes. The rising magma,whether or not it erupts, puts more pressure on the crust to produce additionalfractures and, ultimately, the rift zone.


East Africa may be the site of the Earth's next major ocean. Plate interactionsin the region provide scientists an opportunity to study first hand howthe Atlantic may have begun to form about 200 million years ago. Geologistsbelieve that, if spreading continues, the three plates that meet at theedge of the present-day African continent will separate completely, allowingthe Indian Ocean to flood the area and making the easternmost corner ofAfrica (the Horn of Africa) a large island.


The size of the Earth has not changed significantly during the past 600million years, and very likely not since shortly after its formation 4.6billion years ago. The Earth's unchanging size implies that the crust mustbe destroyed at about the same rate as it is being created, as Harry Hesssurmised. Such destruction (recycling) of crust takes place along convergentboundaries where plates are moving toward each other, and sometimes oneplate sinks (is subducted) under another. The location where sinkingof a plate occurs is called a subduction zone.


The type of convergence -- called by some a very slow "collision"-- that takes place between plates depends on the kind of lithosphere involved.Convergence can occur between an oceanic and a largely continental plate,or between two largely oceanic plates, or between two largely continentalplates.


Off the coast of South America along the Peru-Chile trench, the oceanicNazca Plate is pushing into and being subducted under the continental partof the South American Plate. In turn, the overriding South American Plateis being lifted up, creating the towering Andes mountains, the backboneof the continent. Strong, destructive earthquakes and the rapid uplift ofmountain ranges are common in this region. Even though the Nazca Plate asa whole is sinking smoothly and continuously into the trench, the deepestpart of the subducting plate breaks into smaller pieces that become lockedin place for long periods of time before suddenly moving to generate largeearthquakes. Such earthquakes are often accompanied by uplift of the landby as much as a few meters.


As with oceanic-continental convergence, when two oceanic plates converge,one is usually subducted under the other, and in the process a trench isformed. The Marianas Trench (paralleling the Mariana Islands), for example,marks where the fast-moving Pacific Plate converges against the slower movingPhilippine Plate. The Challenger Deep, at the southern end of the MarianasTrench, plunges deeper into the Earth's interior (nearly 11,000 m) thanMount Everest, the world's tallest mountain, rises above sea level (about8,854 m).


Subduction processes in oceanic-oceanic plate convergence also resultin the formation of volcanoes. Over millions of years, the erupted lavaand volcanic debris pile up on the ocean floor until a submarine volcanorises above sea level to form an island volcano. Such volcanoes are typicallystrung out in chains called island arcs. As the name implies, volcanicisland arcs, which closely parallel the trenches, are generally curved.The trenches are the key to understanding how island arcs such as the Marianasand the Aleutian Islands have formed and why they experience numerous strongearthquakes. Magmas that form island arcs are produced by the partial meltingof the descending plate and/or the overlying oceanic lithosphere. The descendingplate also provides a source of stress as the two plates interact, leadingto frequent moderate to strong earthquakes.


The Himalayan mountain range dramatically demonstrates one of the most visibleand spectacular consequences of plate tectonics. When two continents meethead-on, neither is subducted because the continental rocks are relativelylight and, like two colliding icebergs, resist downward motion. Instead,the crust tends to buckle and be pushed upward or sideways. The collisionof India into Asia 50 million years ago caused the Indian and Eurasian Plates to crumple up along the collision zone. After the collision, the slow continuousconvergence of these two plates over millions of years pushed up the Himalayasand the Tibetan Plateau to their present heights. Most of this growth occurredduring the past 10 million years. The Himalayas, towering as high as 8,854m above sea level, form the highest continental mountains in the world.Moreover, the neighboring Tibetan Plateau, at an average elevation of about4,600 m, is higher than all the peaks in the Alps except for Mont Blancand Monte Rosa, and is well above the summits of most mountains in the UnitedStates.


Above: The collision between the Indian and Eurasian plateshas pushed up the Himalayas and the Tibetan Plateau. Below: Cartoon crosssections showing the meeting of these two plates before and after theircollision. The reference points (small squares) show the amount of upliftof an imaginary point in the Earth's crust during this mountain-buildingprocess.


The zone between two plates sliding horizontally past one another is calleda transform-fault boundary, or simply a transform boundary. Theconcept of transform faults originated with Canadian geophysicist J. TuzoWilson, who proposed that these large faults or fracture zones connecttwo spreading centers (divergent plate boundaries) or, less commonly, trenches(convergent plate boundaries). Most transform faults are found on the oceanfloor. They commonly offset the active spreading ridges, producing zig-zagplate margins, and are generally defined by shallow earthquakes. However,a few occur on land, for example the San Andreas fault zone in California.This transform fault connects the East Pacific Rise, a divergent boundaryto the south, with the South Gorda -- Juan de Fuca -- Explorer Ridge, anotherdivergent boundary to the north.


Not all plate boundaries are as simple as the main types discussed above.In some regions, the boundaries are not well defined because the plate-movementdeformation occurring there extends over a broad belt (called a plate-boundaryzone). One of these zones marks the Mediterranean-Alpine region betweenthe Eurasian and African Plates, within which several smaller fragmentsof plates (microplates) have been recognized. Because plate-boundaryzones involve at least two large plates and one or more microplates caughtup between them, they tend to have complicated geological structures andearthquake patterns.


We can measure how fast tectonic plates are moving today, but how do scientistsknow what the rates of plate movement have been over geologic time? Theoceans hold one of the key pieces to the puzzle. Because the ocean-floormagnetic striping records the flip-flops in the Earth's magnetic field,scientists, knowing the approximate duration of the reversal, can calculatethe average rate of plate movement during a given time span. These averagerates of plate separations can range widely. The Arctic Ridge has the slowestrate (less than 2.5 cm/yr), and the East Pacific Rise near Easter Island,in the South Pacific about 3,400 km west of Chile, has the fastest rate(more than 15 cm/yr). 2ff7e9595c


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